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  • 1
    Article
    Article
    The ubiquitous language of violence in the Hebrew Bible. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 23-41
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 23-41
    Keywords: Bible Language, style ; Violence in the Bible ; Hebrew language, Biblical Terms and phrases
    Abstract: This chapter aims to identify and categorise terms for violence in Hebrew, as a foundation for further study of the use of violence in the Hebrew Bible. It understands violence as the deliberate use of physical force against another, and especially against the body of another. It surveys terms for actions and puts them in several categories, such as to 1) destroy, oppress, show violence; 2) kill, slaughter; 3) strike; 4) break, break bones, break the neck; 5) crush; 6) pierce, thrust through, wound; 7) cut, cut off, cut into pieces; and 8) seize, bind. This categorisation does not include the words war, warrior, fight, burn, capture, or circumcise, nor does it include other terms for hostility that do not necessarily include violence, such as reject, despise, mock, curse, hate, abhor, and loathe. The preliminary list of terms for violence contains 235 items, which occur in the Hebrew Bible a total of 5,400 times (constituting 1.8% of the Hebrew Bible). The chapter analyses how many of these terms and occurrences relate to violence against persons and draws some preliminary conclusions based on this analysis.
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_004
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  • 2
    Article
    Article
    Narratives of violence in Numbers 25 : between text and reception. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 128-140
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 128-140
    Keywords: Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; Violence in the Bible
    Abstract: According to many scholars, the narratives of violence in the Hebrew Bible conflict with the gospel of grace, love, peace, and forgiveness found in the New Testament. While some try to justify these violent texts, others simply write them off as obsolete. This chapter, however, underlines the complex literary and canonical context in which violent passages appear, as well as the incongruity between ancient Israelite culture and the cultures of readers today. Is it possible for a modern reader to interpret narratives of violence, such as the injunction in Numbers 25:17 (“Treat the Midianites as enemies and kill them”), without giving credence to imperialism, holy war, nepotism, or genocide? This chapter argues that the complexity of the material with regard to violence in Numbers 25 can affirm that it opposes violence and views peace as the ultimate goal instead.
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_008
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  • 3
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    God appeased by homicide? : 2 Samuel 21:1-14 in view of some Hittite and Assyrian parallels. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 229-268
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 229-268
    Keywords: Rizpah ; Mursilis ; Sargon ; David, ; Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; Hittite literature Relation to the Bible ; Assyro-Babylonian literature Relation to the Bible ; Homicide Biblical teaching
    Abstract: Present-day readers, including Jews and Christians, tend to be shocked by the account of the purposeful execution of seven descendants of Saul in 2 Samuel 21:1–14. Traditionally, the narrative was presumed to justify David’s decision to have them killed. Nowadays, the story is often read with suspicion. Does the homicide really serve a purpose, and is the way in which it is justified convincing? The elimination of Saul’s relatives may have served David well. A new analysis of three non-biblical texts from the ancient Near East demonstrates that the plot of the biblical episode largely fits a known conceptual pattern. This pattern indicates what a responsible king must do in times of misery. The comparison shows that some critical readings of 2 Samuel 21:1–14 lack a solid basis, while others have a point. Despite the elements that do not make sense to twenty-first-century readers, both the biblical and the non-biblical texts appear to exhibit positive aspects of ancient religious thinking.
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_014
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  • 4
    Article
    Article
    Jael : mighty hero or slippery man-slayer?. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 190-213
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 190-213
    Keywords: Jael ; Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; Bible Appreciation ; Women in the Bible ; Violence in the Bible
    Abstract: Jael (based on the account of her actions in Judges 4–5) has been viewed in many ways, including as a courageous hero and as a deceitful murderer. However, a literary-rhetorical study of the song indicates another purpose of the accounts, one that is not related to her character. Rather a more compelling interpretation is that the two texts, particularly the song, were composed to stir the tribes to participate in Yhwh’s cause, in battle against the enemy. The climax of the account (based on the literary rhetoric) is Jael’s actions. For Israel at that time, Jael was a hero. But how do women today view Jael’s “violent act”? Is violence ever seen as a necessary act for them?This chapter is based on groups in South Africa studying and performing Judges 4–5, with particular focus on the texts relating to Jael. The first group is made up of “Coloured” women who grew up in the violence of Cape Flats, some of whom deal with “violent men” in their lives through manslaughter. The second group is made up of (educated) young African refugees from societies in which women traditionally submit to men. The study looks at their interpretations of Jael’s actions and evaluates them in the light of the Hebrew text.
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_012
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  • 5
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    Divine tears over divine violence : God’s lament in the oracle against Moab in Jeremiah 48. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 295-314
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 295-314
    Keywords: Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; God Biblical teaching ; Oracles Biblical teaching ; Violence in the Bible ; Laments in the Bible ; Compassion Biblical teaching ; Moab (Kingdom)
    Abstract: Among the “texts of terror,” the oracles against the nations stand out as documents which vehemently attest human and divine violence. In the collection of these oracles in the book of Jeremiah, the prophecy concerning Moab (Jeremiah 48), with its extraordinary length and its remarkable accumulation of reused prophetic material (from, i.a., Isaiah 15–16), proclaims a merciless divine judgment. No future is left for Moab; a total annihilation is envisaged (v. 42).An intriguing feature in this chapter, however, is that this oracle, much more than the others in the section in Jeremiah 46–49, has a theological interest. The prophetic announcement of Moab’s destruction shows an idiosyncratic alternation of judgment and lament. Both fierce divine anger and divine regret, divine judgment and wailing over Moab are part of the oracle. A detailed analysis shows that in several texts in Jeremiah 48, Yhwh is most probably the subject of weeping. This chapter points out that this language of divine grief is not to be interpreted in a figurative sense, as an “ironic inversion of the lamentation” (Brian C. Jones), but as a sign of divine compassion (Terence E. Fretheim). The theological significance of this oracle in Jeremiah 48 is far-reaching.
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_016
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  • 6
    Article
    Article
    Religious violence and the Hebrew Bible. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 13-22
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 13-22
    Keywords: Violence in the Bible ; Violence Religious aspects
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_003
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  • 7
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    Article
    Benjamin's brides : different forms of violence in Judges 21. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 214-228
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 214-228
    Keywords: Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; Violence in the Bible ; Benjamin (Tribe of Israel) ; Kings and rulers Biblical teaching
    Abstract: The story in Judges 21 about how the tribe of Benjamin was saved from extinction by providing the men with the women necessary for procreation evokes different reactions. Is it horror or humour? After a short survey of the history of the interpretation of this passage, the following study intends to show that within its present context, the horrific aspect takes precedence over the originally more humorous character of the second part of the story. This argument will be based on an analysis of the chapter’s place within the structure of the book of Judges and the way in which older traditions have been incorporated.
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_013
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  • 8
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    Article
    Yhwh's war with whom? : Foreign deities and the biblical portrayal of kings. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 269-291
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 269-291
    Keywords: Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; God Biblical teaching ; Gods Biblical teaching ; Kings and rulers Biblical teaching ; War in the Bible
    Abstract: Even when the books of Kings mention foreign deities (e.g., 2 Kings 5:18; 2 Kings 17:30–31) and refer to foreign kings with theophoric names (such as Ben-hadad), the foreign deities seem absent in several stories of military confrontation (such as 1 Kings 20 MT). Did biblical authors intentionally leave out the foreign deities of their enemies (cf. 2 Kings 18:32b–35)? How does this absence influence the narrative? Taking 1 Kings 20 MT and 2 Kings 18–19 as examples, this paper examines the question of whether two foreign kings are represented as direct enemies of Yhwh by the biblical authors. By not mentioning their deities, does this narrative portrayal rank these kings on the same divine tier as Yhwh? Is this intended to underline the foreign kings’ arrogance? What might be the other (intended) effects on the perception of foreign deities and foreign kings? And what might be the effects on Israelite kings who “did evil in the sight of the Lord”?
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_015
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  • 9
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    Article
    Reading the Book of Micah as mediation between two perspectives on the enemy. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 315-337
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 315-337
    Keywords: Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; Enemy in the Bible
    Abstract: This chapter investigates the positioning of the book of Micah between Jonah and Nahum in the Masoretic version of the Book of the Twelve. The author explores the opposing perspectives on the enemy in the books of Jonah and Nahum as well as their theological motivations, which are connected with Israel’s fundamental, core beliefs concerning God’s character. Subsequently, the author explores “multiperspectivity” on the enemy in the book of Micah. This multiperspectivity – as we find it in its final form in the book of Micah – reflects a vivid, complicated, and even confusing struggle, which made the book an excellent mediator, connecting extremes and giving space to each of them. In particular, the “God confession” in Micah 7:18–20 raises an explicit voice concerning the theological dispute at stake between Jonah and Nahum. At the same time, the book of Micah’s multiperspetivity announces to the receiving and reading communities that the dispute has not yet been decided. The debate on these essential issues can and must go on in every generation.
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_017
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  • 10
    Article
    Article
    Scheming violence in the Psalms. (2020)
    In:  Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception (2020) 361-372
    Details
    ISBN: 9789004434677
    Language: English
    Year of publication: 2020
    Titel der Quelle: Violence in the Hebrew Bible; Between Text and Reception
    Angaben zur Quelle: (2020) 361-372
    Keywords: Bible. Criticism, interpretation, etc. ; Violence in the Bible
    Abstract: This chapter explores a relatively unexplored indigenous critique of violence in the Hebrew Bible. For many biblical psalmists, violence was deceitful and verbalised in hidden places. First, the psalmist drew direct connections between scheming in private and violence experienced by the psalmist. This tendency raises the question of why the psalmist draws such frequent attention to the enemy’s verbal assaults. One possibility is that by calling attention to their speech, the psalmist “outs them” to God, who hears and responds. Thus their words become their downfall. This leads to a second point: that the category of “violence” included the physical act and the verbal scheme. It was in the secretive plotting council that the enemy gained the upper hand over the psalmist’s life. As a weaker party, the psalmist sought divine refuge from the enemy’s words. Third, this chapter raises questions about how we might best describe the psalmist’s perspective on scheming. Scheming certainly preceded the experience of direct bodily attack, and thus petitioners were anxious for God to prevent schemed attacks. Nevertheless, schemes were also considered to cause significant and widespread terror and harm. Violence itself was a circle wide enough to include scheming – an act that became linked to the experience of terror and actual harm. It thus warranted divine retribution and could be turned back on the schemer himself.
    DOI: 10.1163/9789004434684_019
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